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(table 6 and extra table 3 on bmj.com)

As mentioned above, the impact of cigarette smoke on these pathways can lead to intestinal inflammation, impaired ileal barrier, and alterations in bacterial clearance (12, 19)

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A 2011 review of studies on the effects of privatization of tobacco monopolies in the 1990s and early 2000s found that such changes in ownership pose a major threat to public health. That paper, co-authored by Gilmore, of the University of Bath, found that privatization led to increases in smoking rates