3.1.1 Background MDD is characterized by constant depressed mood, anhedonia, altered sleep and appetite, fatigue, guilt, hopelessness, and suicidal tendencies (Cui et al., 2024)
Low-grade inflammation due to exaggeration of inflammatory signaling pathways and increasing the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, mainly IL-1, IL-6, and TNF- induce brain leptin resistance in obesity (Paz-Filho et al
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Similar clinical symptoms are found in individuals with hereditary IF deficiency (also called congenital pernicious anemia) in whom the lack of IF results in the defective absorption of vitamin B 12